Development of process strategies

   The electron beam offers the potential for innovative selective beam melting process strategies due its inertia-free deflection at extremely high speed.
   A deep understanding of the process is developed with the help of different methods of in-situ process monitoring (thermal imaging and high speed camera). In particular, the potential to tailor the microstructure, grain structure and texture of the material with the help of the extremely high beam velocity is explored. In addition, we investigate the mechanisms of evaporation induced material displacement and the possibility to use this effect to realize hollow structures within components.
   A further focus is on processing of single crystalline nickel-base alloys. We are designing building strategies to avoid cold and hot crack formation. The main challenge is to control directional and rapid solidification in order to realize single crystals directly developing from powder particles without any seed material. We are now able to realize large single crystals out of nickel-base alloys with unique homogeneity by selective electron beam melting.
   These activities are embedded in the CRCs DFG 814 “Additive Manufacturing” (http://www.sfb814.forschung.uni-erlangen.de/) and DFG TR 103 “From Atom to Turbine Blade” (http://www.sfb-transregio103.de/).

• Pistor J., Hagen S., Virtanen S., Körner C.:
  Influence of the microstructural homogeneity on the high-temperature oxidation behavior of a single crystalline Ni-base superalloy
  In: Scripta Materialia 207 (2022), Article No.: 114301
  ISSN: 1359-6462
  DOI: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2021.114301
• Knoerlein J., Franke MM., Schloffer M., Körner C.:
  In-situ aluminum control for titanium aluminide via electron beam powder bed fusion to realize a dual microstructure
  In: Additive Manufacturing 59 (2022)
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.103132
• Fu Z., Ye J., Franke M., Körner C.:
  A novel approach for powder bed-based additive manufacturing of compositionally graded composites
  In: Additive Manufacturing 56 (2022), Article No.: 102916
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.102916
• Bortoluci Ormastroni LM., Lopez-Galilea I., Pistor J., Ruttert B., Körner C., Theisen W., Villechaise P., Pedraza F., Cormier J.:
  Very high cycle fatigue durability of an additively manufactured single-crystal Ni-based superalloy
  In: Additive Manufacturing 54 (2022), Article No.: 102759
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2022.102759
• Gotterbarm M.:
  Kornstrukturmodifikation beim Selektiven Elektronenstrahlschmelzen der Nickelbasis-Superlegierung IN718 (Dissertation, 2022)
• Pistor J.:
  Grundlegende Mechanismen bei der additiven Fertigung von technischen Einkristallen (Dissertation, 2022)
• Pistor J., Körner C.:
  A novel mechanism to generate metallic single crystals
  In: Scientific Reports 11 (2021)
  ISSN: 2045-2322
  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04235-2
• Pistor J., Breuning C., Körner C.:
  A single crystal process window for electron beam powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of a CMSX-4 type Ni-based superalloy
  In: Materials 14 (2021), Article No.: 3785
  ISSN: 1996-1944
  DOI: 10.3390/ma14143785
• Rausch A., Pistor J., Breuning C., Markl M., Körner C.:
  New grain formation mechanisms during powder bed fusion
  In: Materials 14 (2021), Article No.: 3324
  ISSN: 1996-1944
  DOI: 10.3390/ma14123324
• Gotterbarm M., Seifi M., Melzer D., Džugan J., Salem AA., Liu ZH., Körner C.:
  Small scale testing of IN718 single crystals manufactured by EB-PBF
  In: Additive Manufacturing 36 (2020), Article No.: 101449
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101449
• Gotterbarm M., Rausch A., Körner C.:
  Fabrication of Single Crystals through a µ-Helix Grain Selection Process during Electron Beam Metal Additive Manufacturing
  In: Metals (2020)
  ISSN: 2075-4701
  DOI: 10.3390/met10030313
• Heinl M., Greiner S., Wudy K., Pobel C., Rasch M., Huber F., Papke T., Merklein M., Schmidt M., Körner C., Drummer D., Hausotte T.:
  Measuring procedures for surface evaluation of additively manufactured powder bed based polymer and metal parts
  In: Measurement Science and Technology 31 (2020), p. 1-14
  ISSN: 1361-6501
  DOI: 10.1088/1361-6501/ab89e2
• Meid C., Dennstedt A., Ramsperger M., Pistor J., Ruttert B., Lopez-Galilea I., Theisen W., Körner C., Bartsch M.:
  Effect of heat treatment on the high temperature fatigue life of single crystalline nickel base superalloy additively manufactured by means of selective electron beam melting
  In: Scripta Materialia 168 (2019), p. 124-128
  ISSN: 1359-6462
  DOI: 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2019.05.002
• Pistor J., Körner C.:
  Formation of topologically closed packed phases within CMSX-4 single crystals produced by additive manufacturing
  In: Materials Letters 1 (2019)
  ISSN: 0167-577X
  DOI: 10.1016/j.mlblux.2019.100003
• Bürger D., Parsa AB., Ramsperger M., Körner C., Eggeler G.:
  Creep properties of single crystal Ni-base superalloys (SX): A comparison between conventionally cast and additive manufactured CMSX-4 materials
  In: Materials Science and Engineering A-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing 762 (2019), Article No.: 138098
  ISSN: 0921-5093
  DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2019.138098
• Pobel C., Arnold C., Osmanlic F., Fu Z., Körner C.:
  Immediate development of processing windows for selective electron beam melting using layerwise monitoring via backscattered electron detection
  In: Materials Letters 249 (2019), p. 70 - 72
  ISSN: 0167-577X
  DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2019.03.048
• Pobel C., Reichel S., Fu Z., Osmanlic F., Körner C.:
  Advanced process strategy to realize microducts free of powder using selective electron beam melting
  In: International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2019)
  ISSN: 0268-3768
  DOI: 10.1007/s00170-019-03615-3
• Köpf J., Gotterbarm M., Markl M., Körner C.:
  3D multi-layer grain structure simulation of powder bed fusion additive manufacturing
  In: Acta Materialia 152 (2018), p. 119-126
  ISSN: 1359-6454
  DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2018.04.030
• Körner C., Ramsperger M., Meid C., Bürger D., Wollgramm P., Bartsch M., Eggeler G.:
  Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of CMSX-4 Single Crystals Prepared by Additive Manufacturing
  In: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A-Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science 49 (2018), p. 3781-3792
  ISSN: 1073-5623
  DOI: 10.1007/s11661-018-4762-5
• Hübner D., Gotterbarm M., Kergaßner A., Köpf J., Pobel C., Markl M., Mergheim J., Steinmann P., Körner C., Stingl M.:
  Topology Optimization in Additive Manufacturing Considering the Grain Structure of Inconel 718 using Numerical Homogenization
  iCAT 2018 (Maribor, 10. October 2018 - 11. October 2018)
  In: Proceedings of 7th International Conference on Additive Technologies 2018
• Ramsperger M.:
  Selektives Elektronenstrahlschmelzen der einkristallinen Ni-Basis Superlegierung CMSX-4 (Dissertation, 2018)
• Scharowsky T., Bauereiß A., Körner C.:
  Influence of the hatching strategy on consolidation during selective electron beam melting of Ti-6Al-4V
  In: International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2017), p. 1-10
  ISSN: 0268-3768
  DOI: 10.1007/s00170-017-0375-1
• Riedlbauer DR., Scharowsky T., Singer R., Steinmann P., Körner C., Mergheim J.:
  Macroscopic simulation and experimental measurement of melt pool characteristics in selective electron beam melting of Ti-6Al-4V
  In: International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2017)
  ISSN: 0268-3768
  DOI: 10.1007/s00170-016-8819-6
  URL: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00170-016-8819-6
• Rausch A., Küng V., Pobel C., Markl M., Körner C.:
  Predictive Simulation of Process Windows for Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing: Influence of the Powder Bulk Density
  In: Materials 10 (2017)
  ISSN: 1996-1944
  DOI: 10.3390/ma10101117
• Rai A., Helmer H., Körner C.:
  Simulation of grain structure evolution during powder bed based additive manufacturing
  In: Additive Manufacturing 13 (2017), p. 124-134
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2016.10.007
• Parsa AB., Ramsperger M., Kostka A., Somsen C., Körner C., Eggeler G.:
  Transmission electron microscopy of a CMSX-4 Ni-base superalloy produced by selective electron beam melting
  In: Metals 6 (2016), Article No.: 258
  ISSN: 2075-4701
  DOI: 10.3390/met6110258
• Körner C.:
  Additive manufacturing of metallic components by selective electron beam melting - A review
  In: International Materials Reviews 61 (2016), p. 361-377
  ISSN: 0308-4590
  DOI: 10.1080/09506608.2016.1176289
• Ruttert B., Ramsperger M., Mujica Roncery L., Lopez-Galilea I., Körner C., Theisen W.:
  Impact of hot isostatic pressing on microstructures of CMSX-4 Ni-base superalloy fabricated by selective electron beam melting
  In: Materials and Design 110 (2016), p. 720-727
  ISSN: 0261-3069
  DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.08.041
• Ramsperger M., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Microstructure of the Nickel-Base Superalloy CMSX-4 Fabricated by Selective Electron Beam Melting
  In: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A-Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science 47 (2016), p. 1469-1480
  ISSN: 1073-5623
  DOI: 10.1007/s11661-015-3300-y
• Helmer H., Bauereiß A., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Erratum to: ‘Grain structure evolution in Inconel 718 during selective electron beam melting’ (Materials Science & Engineering A (2016) 668 (180–187 (S0921509316305536) (10.1016/j.msea.2016.05.046))
  In: Materials Science and Engineering A-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing 676 (2016)
  ISSN: 0921-5093
  DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2016.09.016
• Helmer H., Bauereiß A., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Grain structure evolution in Inconel 718 during selective electron beam melting
  In: Materials Science and Engineering A-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and Processing 668 (2016), p. 180-187
  ISSN: 0921-5093
  DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2016.05.046
• Körner C., Ramsperger M.:
  Selective electron beam melting of the single crystalline nickel-base superalloy CMSX-4®: From columnar grains to a single crystal
  13th International Symposium on Superalloys, SUPERALLOYS 2016 (Seven Springs, 11. September 2016 - 15. September 2016)
  In: M. Hardy, E. Huron, U. Glatzel, B. Griffin, B. Lewis, C. Rae, V. Seetharaman, S. Tin (ed.): Superalloys 2016: Proceedings of the 13th Intenational Symposium of Superalloys 2016
  DOI: 10.1002/9781119075646.ch37
• Helmer H.:
  Additive Fertigung durch Selektives Elektronenstrahlschmelzen der Nickelbasis Superlegierung IN718: Prozessfenster, Mikrostruktur und mechanische Eigenschaften (Dissertation, 2016)
• Pobel C., Gotterbarm M., Samfaß V., Osmanlic F., Körner C.:
  Innovative processing strategies for selective electron beam melting: Influence of scan line spacings on composition of Ti-6Al-4V and microstructure of IN718
  6th International Conference on Additive Technologies iCAT 2016 (Nürnberg, 29. November 2016 - 30. November 2016)
  In: Igor Drstvenšek, Dietmar Drummer, Michael Schmidt (ed.): Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Additive Technologies, Ljubljana: 2016
• Scharowsky T.:
  Grundlagenuntersuchungen zum selektiven Elektronenstrahlschmelzen von TiAl6V4 (Dissertation, 2016)
• Scharowsky T., Jüchter V., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Influence of the Scanning Strategy on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Selective Electron Beam Melting of Ti-6Al-4V
  In: Advanced Engineering Materials 17 (2015), p. 1573-1578
  ISSN: 1438-1656
  DOI: 10.1002/adem.201400542
• Ramsperger M., Mujica Roncery L., Lopez-Galilea I., Singer R., Theisen W., Körner C.:
  Solution Heat Treatment of the Single Crystal Nickel-Base Superalloy CMSX-4 Fabricated by Selective Electron Beam Melting
  In: Advanced Engineering Materials 17 (2015), p. 1486-1493
  ISSN: 1438-1656
  DOI: 10.1002/adem.201500037
• Markl M., Ammer R., Rüde U., Körner C.:
  Numerical investigations on hatching process strategies for powder-bed-based additive manufacturing using an electron beam
  In: International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 78 (2015), p. 239-247
  ISSN: 0268-3768
  DOI: 10.1007/s00170-014-6594-9
  URL: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00170-014-6594-9
• Jüchter V., Scharowsky T., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Processing window and evaporation phenomena for Ti-6Al-4V produced by selective electron beam melting
  In: Acta Materialia 76 (2014), p. 252-258
  ISSN: 1359-6454
  DOI: 10.1016/j.actamat.2014.05.037
• Helmer H., Körner C., Singer R.:
  Additive manufacturing of nickel-based superalloy Inconel 718 by selective electron beam melting: Processing window and microstructure
  In: Journal of Materials Research 29 (2014), p. 1987-1996
  ISSN: 0884-2914
  DOI: 10.1557/jmr.2014.192
• Körner C., Helmer H., Bauereiß A., Singer R.:
  Tailoring the grain structure of IN718 during selective electron beam melting
  2nd European Symposium on Superalloys and Their Applications, EUROSUPERALLOYS 2014 (Giens)
  DOI: 10.1051/matecconf/20141408001
• Schwerdtfeger J., Körner C.:
  Selective electron beam melting of Ti-48Al-2Nb-2Cr: Microstructure and aluminium loss
  In: Intermetallics 49 (2014), p. 29-35
  ISSN: 0966-9795
  DOI: 10.1016/j.intermet.2014.01.004
• Bauereiß A., Scharowsky T., Körner C.:
  Defect generation and propagation mechanism during additive manufacturing by selective beam melting
  In: Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014), p. 2522-2528
  ISSN: 0924-0136
  DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.05.002
• Schaub A., Jüchter V., Singer R., Merklein M.:
  Characterization of hybrid components consisting of SEBM additive structures and sheet metal of alloy Ti-6Al-4V
  In: Key Engineering Materials (2014), p. 609-614
  ISSN: 1013-9826
  DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.611-612.609
• Scharowsky T., Osmanlic F., Körner C., Singer R.:
  Melt pool dynamics during selective electron beam melting
  In: Applied Physics A-Materials Science & Processing 114 (2014), p. 1303-1307
  ISSN: 0947-8396
  DOI: 10.1007/s00339-013-7944-4
• Körner C., Bauereiß A., Attar E.:
  Fundamental consolidation mechanisms during selective beam melting of powders
  In: Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering 21 (2013), Article No.: 085011
  ISSN: 0965-0393
  DOI: 10.1088/0965-0393/21/8/085011
• Ammer R., Markl M., Jüchter V., Körner C., Rüde U.:
  Validation Experiments for LBM Simulations of Electron Beam Melting
  In: International Journal of Modern Physics C (2014), p. 1-9
  ISSN: 0129-1831
  DOI: 10.1142/S0129183114410095
  URL: http://arxiv.org/pdf/1402.2440.pdf
• Schwerdtfeger J., Singer R., Körner C.:
  In situ flaw detection by IR-imaging during electron beam melting
  In: Rapid Prototyping Journal 18 (2012), p. 259-263
  ISSN: 1355-2546
  DOI: 10.1108/13552541211231572
• Scharowsky T., Bauereiß A., Singer R., Körner C.:
  Observation and numerical simulation of melt pool dynamic and beam powder interaction during selective electron beam melting
  23rd Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference, SFF 2012 (Austin, TX)
  URL: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?partnerID=HzOxMe3b&scp=84889688177&origin=inward
• Hrabe NW., Heinl P., Flinn B., Körner C., Bordia RK.:
  Compression-compression fatigue of selective electron beam melted cellular titanium (Ti-6Al-4V)
  In: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B-Applied Biomaterials (2011), p. 313-320
  ISSN: 1552-4973
  DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.31901
• Ponader S., von Wilmowsky C., Widenmayer M., Lutz R., Heinl P., Körner C., Singer R., Nkenke E., Neukam FW., Schlegel K.:
  In vivo performance of selective electron beam-melted Ti-6Al-4V structures
  In: Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A 92 (2010), p. 56-62
  ISSN: 1549-3296
  DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.32337
• Heinl P., Körner C., Singer R.:
  Selective electron beam melting - A novel generative manufacturing technique for cellular titanium
  5th International Conference on Porous Metals and Metallic Foams, MetFoam 2007 (Montreal, QC)
  URL: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?partnerID=HzOxMe3b&scp=56549129261&origin=inward
• Heinl P., Müller L., Körner C., Singer R., Müller F.:
  Cellular Ti-6Al-4V structures with interconnected macro porosity for bone implants fabricated by selective electron beam melting
  In: Acta Biomaterialia 4 (2008), p. 1536-1544
  ISSN: 1742-7061
  DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2008.03.013
• Heinl P., Rottmair A., Körner C., Singer R.:
  Cellular titanium by selective electron beam melting
  In: Advanced Engineering Materials 9 (2007), p. 360-364
  ISSN: 1438-1656
  DOI: 10.1002/adem.200700025
• Reith M., Franke M., Körner C.:
  Impact of the acceleration voltage on the processing of γ-TiAl via electron beam powder bed fusion
  In: Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2023)
  ISSN: 2363-9512
  DOI: 10.1007/s40964-023-00499-4
• Ye J., Semjatov N., Bidola P., Lindwall G., Körner C.:
  Revealing the Mechanisms of Smoke during Electron Beam–Powder Bed Fusion by High-Speed Synchrotron Radiography
  In: Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 8 (2024), Article No.: 103
  ISSN: 2504-4494
  DOI: 10.3390/jmmp8030103
• Semjatov N., Wahlmann B., Körner C.:
  Multiple interaction electron beam powder bed fusion for controlling melt pool dynamics and improving surface quality
  In: Additive Manufacturing 90 (2024), Article No.: 104316
  ISSN: 2214-7810
  DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2024.104316